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on pagan chants at funerals Goths

The pagan chants at funerals were banned only in the Councils of Toledo in the sixth century, and during the establishment of the kingdom of Hispania Godo, but may be replaced by the Psalms sung (psalmon), which were heard more and more frequently at funerals Goths (usfilh, gafilh) as part of the inclusion of Christianity in the pagan rites secular Goths now practiced in Christianity

Christianity and Germanic Religious Beliefs

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The Visigothic Spain - Culture

The Kingdom of Spain remained, and during the empire, a leading cultural focus in Europe.
Hidacio and Orosius were the wisest of his time.
new monasteries were founded, which continued the work of evangelization.
The schools organized bishoprics became centers of culture.
San Isidore, bishop of Seville, was recognized as the wisest of his time. He wrote numerous works. "The Etymologies" summarizes the science and knowledge of classical culture, translated by Alfonso X the Wise. He also wrote: "History Visigothorum, sueborum, vandalorum", "Chronic, and" De illustribus Virus. " His works reflected the "trivium" and "cuadrivium" division of the studies of classical antiquity and what happened to education during the Middle Ages.
Notably, the importance of the extant works, including: San Leandro de Sevilla. Martin of Braga. Braulio of Zaragoza. Julian and Eugene of Toledo. Fruitful Braga, Valerio del Bierzo. Gothic
cultural influence in the formation of Spain as a nation and state was enormous. Visigoths dresses like trousers, shirt and shoes, replaced the Roman and Iberian talares dresses and sandals. The balconies and overhangs in the houses made the Goths. Harmonic rules of music are Gothic. Our concept of honor is Goth, and much of our ethics. The English language is steeped in their vocabulary, phonics and vocabulary of Gothic words. Son Gothic words: shoe, hat, braids, temperate, dagger, machete, panache, abutment, trap, climb, range, band, flag, cattle, hay, Galindo, Gutiérrez (son of Goth), Godoy, Jimenez, Rico etc. The Goths are English, so much so that even today the mainland are called in Canary Islands Goths. Jurate Rosales
The philologist has shown that the English language or English in the way of speaking Goths Vulgar Latin (Baltic). Was observed in the diphthongs of o, a, and long, the loss of the initial f in the palatalization of Latin syllables ki and ti, at the turn of the g k English America in the completion ez the surnames, in the absence of t on the end of the third person plural, changes that are similar to those of the Baltic languages.
This historical memory remains very much alive in the Middle Ages, so much so that in 1073, the Prussian Adam of Bremen wrote that came to the island of Courland Goths pilgrims Espanna (nn: o) and Greece

By Javier Albert Gutierrez, Professor of History.

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The beginnings of the conquest of Hispania: Battle of the River Orbigo (456)

The starting point of this campaign is to be found in two important events occurred in the V century: the election with the support of the Visigoths by Marco Flavio Maecilio Avitia as Emperor of the West July 9, 455 - following the murder of Valentinian III and Aetius - and the campaign of expansion of the Swabians in the hand of his king Reckiario - son of Theodoric I - in Hispania. Regarding the first, was the Visigoth king Theodoric II - son of Thierry I and murderer Turismundo his brother - who persuaded the noble Gallo-Roman to accept the imperial crown, then vacant. The words of the Visigoth king, according to Sidonius Apollinaris, were:

"We must proclaim Augustus. To deprive anyone of the Empire it is not in anyone's hand. If you put yourself in front of the fates of Rome, it can count on my friendship, if thou proclamations prince, I'll be your soldier.
is imperative that the world is put at your command, or you will perish. "

is difficult to know the reasons that pushed the Visigoth king to take this decision but it is clear that her friendship with Avitus was authentic and loyalty the new emperor indisputable. This is illustrated by the fact that giving up its expansion beyond the Loire in order to protect his new ally. Similarly, we can say that the cult Avitus, who had taught at the Latin Visigoth king, behaved in the same way with his ally, allowing you to enter in Arles, which had fought with untiring perseverance his predecessors.
This friendship helps explain the attitude of the Visigoth king to the second crucial fact that we have cited: Reckiario expansionary policy. We say partly because if the alliance with Avitus explains the fact that in the campaign against the Visigoths, Swabians would act as imperial troops, so is that since Ataulfo, the Visigoth monarchs had set their sights on Hispania. An example of this is in 454, when Theodoric II and his brother Federico (fratricide as) had intervened in the Tarragona against bagaudas. Coalition of impoverished farmers and some Germans and non-Germanic peoples, such as the Basques. That sowed anarchy in Gaul and Spain during the fifth century It is very possible that by then the Visigoth king thought of the formation of a kingdom in Gaul and Spain that had as its spine the Pyrenees. If this was the idea of \u200b\u200bTheodoric II, the Swabians were giving him an excellent excuse to carry it out.
Reckiario was king since 445. Converted to Catholicism in 448, beginning then a policy of expansion across Hispania led him to control most of it around the year 450. However, neither the people nor it fell short of its ambitions. Swabian town, as Osorio, had turned their swords into plowshares and, further, as Reinhart, should not be adding a whole, more than 30,000 people, of which only 8,000 were warriors as their king, Torres Rodríguez us describes it as:

"raised in an atmosphere of triumphalism cuddly, more daring than proactive, courageous if and deeds, but with more percussion and more daring strength that courage"

This amount was not, Of course, the best recipes to get around the V century Europe, where smart people, greedy, adventurous, heroic, trying to win the spoils of the Roman Empire.
After the battle field and the resulting recovery Cataláunicos imperial power Reckiario was forced to sign a treaty with the Romans in 453 on the back at the achievements made, becoming an ally of the Empire. But in 456, considering the authority of Rome weakened, Reckiario attacked the Carthaginians, a province that had returned to Rome in the treaty of 453. Given this fact, Avitus, as head of the Western Roman Empire, and Theodoric II, as his faithful ally, sent an embassy to the Swabian king, chaired by the Earl Fronton, the same who had signed the treaty of 453 with Reckiario.
The Swabian king's attitude to the imperial commission was dismissive, even threatening to attack Toulouse. This was the excuse he needed a character as cold and calculating as Theodoric II to undertake a campaign against him.
First, he sent a fleet of seven ships and about 400 warriors Heruli the coast of Lugo, to spread alarm in the enemy's rear, preventing the Swabians crossed the Pyrenees and move towards Toulouse. Theodoric II's forces were defeated by the Swabians, but only suffered two casualties.
As these forces attacked the rear Swabian, the Visigoth king came into contact with Franks and Burgundians, not only to reinforce his army, but also to prevent an attack from behind. Also reinforced his army with Heruli and Varna, as explained by Jordanes. Once he had his forces ready, and aware of his superiority, as indicated by Rodríguez Torres sent a new embassy, \u200b\u200bcarrying an ultimatum to Reckiario. The Swabian king replied with a new campaign of looting in Tarragona. Given this attitude Reckiario, Theodoric II was launched with his army. San Isidoro wrote that Theodoric II

"From Hispania Aquitaine enters with a large army and with the consent of the emperor Avitus"

Apparently, this expedition was to fulfill the orders of the Emperor against unfair Swabian king, but the real purpose was to expand their Visigothic kingdom in Hispania.
From Aquitaine, the Gothic army spent the Pyrenees and penetrated into Hispania. Theodoric II took great care to cross as quickly as possible to Tarragona, a Roman province, so that could not be accused of trying to conquer empire. Goth
The king was aware that was an Arian, while the vast majority of the population hispanoromana was Catholic, as were the Swabians. Theodoric II was smart enough to think that, given the hatred of Catholics felt by the Arians, if there was the slightest suspicion that they intended to take possession of Hispania, the population of this territory could join Reckiario, constituting assume a formidable foe. Hence, at any time stop serving notice to restore the imperial power violated by the Swabians.
The route followed, therefore, was to cross the Pyrenees at Roncesvalles and, following the Roman road passed through Pamplona and Briviesca, from where he went to Astorga (León), Reckiario city that had its base of operations. During this march
Gothic troops met no resistance until they reached the vicinity of Orbigo River, 12 miles from Astorga, there I waited for the army Reckiario, who had begun a hasty march from Tarragona, where he was performing the aforementioned plundering campaign.
The battle took place on October 5 year 456. Know their location thanks to the works of Jordanes and Hidacio, the great chronicler of the Swabians. Yet we know very little about the development of it. Rodriguez Torres says that the armies of both contenders were similar in number, but with important qualitative differences. The Goths were superior in number and ferocity, in the cavalry, weapons, training, military experience and discipline. They were the very men who five years earlier had destroyed the army of the dreaded Attila. By contrast, the Swabians were more predators fierons fighters. His army consisted primarily of infantry, poorly equipped and poorly trained. Which had had no great battles and heroic deeds for many years. More accustomed to plunder peasant farms and slaves, who fight against powerful armies of tanned men in war.
possessed some mounted cavalry small and fast horses, but not accustomed to fighting units and be equipped with little education. Under these conditions, the battle had already before one possible outcome: the victory of Theodoric II.
The fight must have been a front, according to historian before above, no helmet, or tactical ploy. It appears that the resistance of the Swabian troops broke before the first charge of the Gothic cavalry. First launched their missiles and then attacked with spears and swords. One of the darts hit Reckiario himself, who had to be removed from the battlefield and transferred to Braga. While this was happening, his men were decimated by the Goths Gardingo. The casualties of the Swabians were so huge, auque a large group of them, mostly on horseback, he fled in the direction of Braga, leaving his companions in the battlefield.
This victory meant Visigothic troops to rule out any possibility of Swabian in Hispania, and early settlement of the Visigoths in it. San Isidoro explains a significant phrase

"And there (Hispania) set your home and the Visigoth empire"

Theodoric II, however was not satisfied with having defeated the Swabian army in the province of Leon, but he was willing to settle in Hispania, and this required breaking the power of any town rival.
Rome, which was an ally, and as such continued to act, was no longer any danger, because the imperial power was crumbling. But Reckiario and few troops available even if. So, after leaving a garrison in Astorga and supplies to camp for at Braga. His goal was to destroy the kingdom of the Swabians.
On October 27 came to that city. It was not Reckiario, who had fled with a few supporters to Porto. After looting Braga, especially the Catholic church buildings that had long supported the cause of the Swabian king, is heading towards Porto. Upon hearing this, try to flee again Reckiario. This time by sea to Italy, where he could join his compatriot Recimero, then magister militum of Italy. Although she
ship, a storm forced him to return to your starting point, where a prisoner was given to Theodoric II. The Visigoth king ordered it to be stuck. Thus ended the adventure of a king whose dreams of grandeur did not fit nor the military capability of its people or their own political virtues. But contrary to what might be expected by the landslide victory of the Goths, his seat did not disappear. But that would last a century and a quarter more, but as a real protectorate of the Visigoths and confined to the mountainous region of Galicia.
For its part, Theodoric II, after the death of Avitus dismissal in September of 456, continuing its policy of expansion in Hispania. In this sense, San Isidoro writes:

"Theodoric victorious march of Galicia and Lusitania, when I thought plunder the city of Merida, back terrified at the miracles of the blessed martyr Eulalia. Then, frightened by adverse news, Merida leaves and goes to Gaul, sending back to the regions of Galicia part of his army to his generals, who, after plundering the region of Astorga, returning again to Gaul. "

Visigoth king This policy was made possible by the triumph of the Battle of the River Orbigo. Torres Rodriguez has captured perfectly the meaning of this in the following paragraph:

"(..) of what not doubt is that Theodoric II, to victory in the river Orbigo, looting of Braga Reckiario execution and their advisers. Had taken the Swabians national flag of Spain Domain. Its immediate objectives were the incorporation of the Lusitania and the alphabet to the Visigothic kingdom, which was fortunate to see made before the end of his days. The final elimination of Swabian kingdom and conquest of the rest of Spain was to be time-consuming task, restricted to their successors "
Roberto Muñoz - The Visigoth army from its origins to the battle of Guadalete -

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struggles against the Basques

The Basques appear in military history, as indicated in Córdoba Garate, in the second Punic war, first forming part of the Carthaginian armies and, later, Romans. People hard, wild and poor, well-supported Roman rule, perhaps because they needed his help against the Cantabrian and Asturian (Celtic), its secular enemies. This loyalty to Rome led them to join the guard of Octavian Augustus, as the study García Bellido. Later, after the defeat of Asturian and Cantabrian, joined the Roman militia, being no disturbance factor for the empire.
However, this situation began to change when Rome was in crisis. According to Sanchez Albornoz, Basques were not Romanized remnants of the Pyrenees which impoverished peasants joined the imperial tax burden were the bands bagaudas that ravaged the valley of the Ebro in the fifth century This theory of the great medieval English has been questioned by many later historians, such as Gonzalo Bravo, who denies the identification between Basques and bagaudas. In any case, you can not deny that there was some relationship between the inhabitants of the Basque and members of the bagaudas, who acted together against the Empire armies sent against looters. This happened in 411, when the Roman general Asturias bagaudas acted against in the territory Basques, or the 443, when it accounted Merobaudes turn.
This situation was further complicated when necessary with the invasion of Spain by the Germanic peoples. The Swabian Reckiario acted against bagaudas located in two campaigns in the years 499 and 456, while Frederick, brother of Theodoric II, it was in the 455. Such actions encouraged the hostility of the Basques to the Germanic peoples, now plaguing their land when they were freed from Roman rule.
From this moment, the Basques have experienced a state of permanent war against the invading peoples, especially the Visigoths. But it was not a conventional war between two armies that fought to conquer territory. As the projects developed by the Basques were meant looting - one of its core business well into middle age. As apparent from the codex Calixtino- while the Visigoths sought to prevent them, robbing them the territory in which they settled, or, if this was not possible because of difficult terrain, inflicting harsh punishments, and establishing a limes, as we know. This attitude is evident from the Visigoths very early. Thus, during the reign of Eurico took over the territory conquered Basques and Pamplona in 481. San Isidoro, referring to the action of the great Visigoth king he writes.

"Then, sending his army, seized Pamplona and Zaragoza and dominating the top of Hispania"

not for long. The crisis that came into Visigothic kingdom after the Basques Vouille allowed to recover their territory, which was independent until the reign of Leovigildo. The great Arian king in 581 start a campaign against them, as John tells us Biclaro. It is difficult to explain this fact, if we consider that at that time the Visigoth king had to cope with more powerful enemies, as were the Byzantines in the southeast, or San Hermenegildo son (Christian).
Again, Orella Unzue uses this fact to claim that the Basques were so powerful an enemy to the Visigoths and the Byzantines. However, this explanation falls under its own weight. Byzantium was, from the military point of view, the enemy were stronger than ever the Visigoths, with the franc, while the Basques did not go from being a group that disrupted the northern border. The reason Leovigildo raging against them in 581 is to be found in the fact that one of his expeditions of plunder, according to Thompson, had reached the Mediterranean, occupying the town of Roses. The Gothic monarch decided to severely punish the northern mountain, sending a strong action against them the first drive out of the city and then continued on their own land, part of which came to power Goth. Leovigildo not happy with that, but also founded the city of Victoriacum in a place near the current Vitoria to control the Basques. And built the limes we have discussed previously.
The continued fighting between the two peoples in the seventh century, although vasconesse proved unable to regain the territory they had seized Leovigildo. Suintila, the monarch who permanently expel the Byzantines, led a campaign against the Basques in the years 621 and 622 to punish their looting raids in Tarragona. San Isidoro gives us the following account of it:

"He made early in his reign an expedition against the Basques, with its forays infested the province of Tarragona, on those occasions, these people, used to run mountains, were victims such terror before the arrival of Suintila that point, as if they recognized to be fair debtors, drawing their weapons and leaving their hands to expedite the appeal, bowed to the necks, pleading, gave hostages, founded the city of Olog goda with their work performance, and promised obedience to his kingdom and his authority and fulfill as many orders will be imposed. "

In this text, Orella

Unzue said "This building Olite, represented a setback for the Basques who saw and slowed its expansion into the Ebro, but not prevent San Braulio as the Basques in 625 threatened back to the region of Zaragoza "

Olite City appears in the texts as Oligitum, not Iriberri.
However, this action did not end the raids of the Basques. During the reign of Recesvinto joined the pretender Froy, facing back to the Visigoths. The situation was repeated during his, Wamba, in the years 672 and 673, in this case coincided with the rebellion of the Duke in the Septimania Paulo, which according to San Julian, the Basques wanted to help. In his history
Wambae - the best source for knowledge of this period - San Julian refers to this coincidence:

"At that time, when these things happened in Gaul, the religious prince Wamba, who was on the part of Cantabria has to fight the fierce people of the Basques, comes with all the land of the Basque army "

The fact that it appears the name of Cantabria Orella has been to say:

"Wamba was now in Cantabria fighting the Basques, not a war of conquest but in a campaign to contain some Basques had been embedded in Visigothic lands"

However, as explained Orlandis well, it was not that the Basques, which Thompson confused with the Basques, where it has never been a Basque people, from any point of view. Had conquered Cantabria, never Basque., But that this region of Spain was at that time the recruitment base and heading for the attack on the Basques. Visigoth king attack carried out with remarkable success. San Julian tells it:

"hardly comes with all the army of the Basque parties, is carried out so effectively the looting of the fields, the harassment of forts and burning of houses, that After seven days, deposed the ferocity of their minds, the rebels agree to submit and get paid for taxes if the life and deliver peace hostages, not so much for the prayers and for the gifts "

If Wamba not just the actions of looting of the Basques in final form because Septimania rebellion that will explain later, obliged him to lead his forces beyond the Pyrenees. San Julian says so:

"therefore, accepted the gifts, collected taxes, and enterprise concerted peace march to Gaul directly (...).

Visigoth The latest campaign against the Basques will take place during the reign of Rodrigo. According to the chronicles, the last Visigoth king was besieged Pamplona when the landing occurred tariq, who was to assume, as once said Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, "loss of Spain." In that sense, Garate Cordoba writes:

"The Basques Hispanic versus Hispanic Goths perhaps contributed to the loss of Spain, far from stopping the army that was to save it."
Roberto Muñoz - The Visigoth army from its origins to the battle of Guadalete -

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The conquest of the Swabian kingdom and Satyros

This Germanic kingdom as we know, lost all power after the defeat expansive Orbigo River in demonstrated a remarkable military inferiority against the Visigoths. The kings who succeeded to Reckiario not improve their military capabilities, distinguishing, says Torres Rodríguez, for their rapacity and their attacks on unarmed populations or groups of farmers, which fought successfully against the Visigoths. They were, says the author, "more greedy and turbulent, that tenacious and heroic." But despite all these defects were not exempt from cunning, political skill and relative strength, enabling them to survive for 177 years
However, this situation came to an end when the Visigoths were determined to achieve complete control of Hispania situation in which we must frame the end of the Swabian kingdom.
In 573, Leovigildo, having fought hard to the Byzantines in southeastern Hispania, decided to send their armies to the north. That same year Sabaria conquered the region, devastating the lands of sappi. Thompson and Orlamdis think it was a semi-independent kingdom of Asturias.
In 574 it was the turn of Cantabria, a region located between the lands of Santander and Burgos, according Ordalis. The Gothic king exterminated full Senate Cantabria, one of whose components are called Abundantius, a Roman name, and conquered Amaya. Basque nationalist historians as Orella Unzue believe that this campaign was against the Cantabrian and the Basques and the latter were expelled from Amaya, while Rodriguez Torres said they were Swabians. However, sources dealing with this era, especially the life of St. Emiliano, written by St. Braulio of Zaragoza, reject this interpretation, asserting that the true rulers of the area were hispanoromanos landowners wishing to create a separate political structure in the area.
The following year 575, the Visigothic army penetrated into the mountains of Orense, an area bordering the Swabian kingdom, and took possession of a prince named Aspidio along with his wife and children, taking over the region. In the 576 it was the turn to the Swabian kingdom itself.
Two years ago, the monarch himself, Myron, terrified Leovigildo campaigns, had sent an embassy the great enemy of the Visigoths, gotra of Burgundy. However, could not reach their destination, as Chilperic intercept them. It is quite possible to learn what happened the Visigoth king decided to punish the Swabians. Because, as Rodriguez Torres:

"Leovigildo must have been about five or six years older than Myron; so that you get over age, particularly in size and warlike polotica"

But this was not possible at the moment. According to that historian Galician, the causafundamental was:

"the resistance that had to offer in this action, the Swabians and Galician, brothers in the same Catholic faith, increased war with guerrillas in the mountains, difficult for the Gothic cavalry "

But it is more likely to be the situation in Southeast Hispania Leovigildo that forced to accept the peace offer by Myron, leaving the punishment of the Swabians for another day.
In subsequent years, and fearing another attack Visigothic King attempt to undermine the monarchy Swabian Toledo. The occasion was present when the rebellion broke out in San Hermenegildo, which we will talk. Myron not only child support Leovigildo Catholic, but sent envoys to gotra of Burgundy and Emperor Maurice to join them in a large coalition against the Visigoth king.
But their projects did not bear fruit, and when the truth was the only support for the rebel. However, do not hesitate to meet its commitments, an army moving to Sevilla in the year 583 in order to fight alongside Hermenegildo. But his forces were besieged by the Visigoths and Myron forced to sign a peace treaty drive was accompanied by a promise to remain faithful and loyal to the Visigoth king. This allowed him to save his army and return to Galicia. Soon after, the young king died. According to Gregory of Tours, a victim of the infected water and harmful air of southern Spain. Rodríguez Torres has left us, meanwhile, a more poetic account of the causes that led to the death of the monarch.

"had been a coward to the scrutiny and Leovigildo terrible, had betrayed his ideals, even at the price of saving his life and that of his soldiers. Cowardice and betrayal were unforgivable crimes that gnaw his conscience of Germany and gentleman, for it was seized by despair and grief to be considered failed "

Myron's death meant the beginning of the end of the Swabian monarchy. His successor, Eurico or Ebor, was a timid young man of character, perhaps too young, that following the advice of his dying father, or perhaps his advisers, opted to pursue a policy of submission Leovigildo. The Visigoth king demanded an oath of allegiance and then gave him symbolic of the kingdom. This may indicate that already at this time the Swabian kingdom was a kind of fiefdom of the Visigoths. This assertion Rodríguez Torres, taking into account the historical period, one must accept it with care.
This policy of submission to Leovigildo early provoke a reaction among the nobility of the kingdom under the leadership of Audeca or Andec, a Swabian noble fiancé or husband of the sister of the young king .. rebels gathered an army that confronted the royal troops, defeating them completely in the year 585. Audeca ordered that Eurico was tortured and therefore reduced to the clerical state. Soon after, he appointed a priest, while his mother was married to Siseguta, widow of Myron. Leovigildo
was then occupied with the revolt of his son Herman. However, news from the northwest of the peninsula had to worry a lot, they decided to send an expedition against Audeca.
This expedition, which was to conquer the kingdom, was developed in less than a year.
The Visigoth army opted to follow the path west coast, as the mountainous route he had taken in the operation of the 576 was too difficult. According to Torres Rodriguez, the route was Evora, Beja, Lisbon, Santarem, and Coimbra. From this city crossed the Douro and Porto took hold quickly. Without stopping, because the surprise was his best weapon, took Braga. There Audeca apprehend and seized the treasure of the Swabians. The Visigoth king's reaction was like that this had had with his predecessor on the throne: Audeca was tonsured, ordained priests, and held in the monastery of Beja.
The storming of the prison capital of the Swabian king assumed the end of this kingdom, for the nobility surrendered en masse to Leovigildo. San Isidoro writes: "Destroyed the Swabian kingdom, step to the power of the Visigoths." For his part, Juan de Biclaro states that "The King Leovigildo devastated Galicia, divest the kingdom to the king seized Audeca and subjected to his power the people, the treasure and home of the Swabians, and makes the Goths province. " However, unless we have noted earlier, no precise data on the development of the campaign. We know nothing about the composition of the contending armies or major combat, having us to settle the claim of Juan de Biclaro of the Gothic monarch campaign had been swift and devastating.
Upon learning of the fall of the Swabian kingdom, the great enemy of the Goths, Gotram of Burgundy, decided to send a fleet to their aid. According to Gregory of Tours, the ships were intercepted and seized by the army of Leovigildo. It is quite possible that although these vessels could not fulfill its mission, Gontran agents were in part responsible for the uprising of noble Swabian Amalric. But this action was doomed to failure from the very beginning, as the Visigoth army, which controlled the steps of the Pyrenees, and Navy, who did the same with the Atlantic coast of Hispania, precluded any possibility of foreign aid to the rebels. And without this assistance could not dream of victory. However, general Leovigildo not trusted, and acting quickly quelled the revolt, Amalric taken prisoner and handed him over to Leovigildo chains.
With this last and unsuccessful attempt to loft, complete history of the kingdom of the Swabians in Hispania. From this moment, becomes the sixth province Gothic kingdom.

Roberto Muñoz - Visigoth army from its origins to the battle of Guadalete